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Official Roles, Hand Signals, Net Violations, the Challenge System & Path to Certification
Last updated: March 1, 2026
Volleyball officiating uses a crew of officials with distinct responsibilities. The first referee (on the elevated platform) has ultimate authority over all decisions. The second referee assists from the opposite side, focusing on net and centerline violations. Line judges (2 or 4) signal ball in/out decisions, and the scorer tracks points, rotations, and substitutions. Referees communicate decisions using a standardized set of hand signals recognized worldwide by FIVB.
A standard FIVB volleyball match uses the following officiating crew:
First Referee (1st Referee) The first referee stands on an elevated platform (referee stand) at one end of the net. They have ultimate authority over all decisions on the court — their calls cannot be overruled by any other official. The first referee:
Second Referee (2nd Referee) The second referee stands on the opposite side of the net from the first referee, at floor level near the scorer's table. They assist by focusing on areas the first referee has limited visibility of:
Line Judges (2 or 4) Line judges stand at diagonally opposite corners of the court (in a 2-line-judge system) or at all four corners (in a 4-line-judge system). Each line judge watches the lines closest to their position and signals:
Scorer and Assistant Scorer Seated at the scorer's table between the two teams' benches, the scorer:
| Role | Position | Primary |
|---|---|---|
| First Referee | Elevated platform at one net end | Ultimate authority — calls faults, authorizes play, sanctions misconduct |
| Second Referee | Floor level, opposite side of net | Net/centerline violations, substitutions, libero tracking, timeouts |
| Line Judges (2 or 4) | Diagonal corners of the court | Ball in/out, touches, foot faults on serve |
| Scorer | Scorer's table (sideline) | Score, rotation order, substitutions, timeouts, buzzer for errors |
FIVB volleyball uses a standardized set of hand signals that referees must perform clearly after every whistle. Each signal communicates the nature of the fault or decision to players, coaches, spectators, and the scorer. Here are the most important signals:
Point / Side-Out: The referee extends one arm toward the team that won the rally, pointing toward their side of the court.
Ball In: The referee points the arm and hand downward toward the floor, indicating the ball landed inside the court lines.
Ball Out: Both arms are raised with forearms vertical and palms facing backward (toward the referee), signaling the ball landed outside the court.
Rotation Fault: One hand makes a circular motion in front of the body (rotating the index finger), indicating a team was out of rotational order at the moment of serve.
Double Contact: Two fingers (index and middle) are raised, signaling a player contacted the ball twice consecutively (except on the first team contact, where double contact is allowed).
Four Hits: Four fingers are raised, signaling a team made more than 3 contacts before sending the ball over the net.
Net Touch: The referee touches the net on the side of the offending player with the corresponding hand, indicating illegal contact with the net during play.
Back-Row Attack Fault: One arm makes a downward waving motion with the forearm, indicating a back-row player illegally attacked from in front of the 3-meter line.
Foot Fault (Serve): The referee points down toward the end line, indicating the server stepped on or over the line before or during the serve contact.
Substitution: Both forearms are rotated around each other (circular motion in front of the chest), signaling a substitution request.
Timeout: One hand (flat, palm down) placed over the fingers of the other hand (vertical, like a "T"), signaling a timeout request.
Ball Handling Error (Lift/Carry): The forearm is raised with palm facing upward and a slow lifting motion, indicating the ball was held or thrown rather than cleanly hit.
Delay Warning / Delay Penalty: The referee points to the wrist of the raised hand (delay warning — yellow card at wrist) or shows a red card at the wrist (delay penalty — point and serve to opponent).
Challenge (Video Review): The referee forms a rectangular "screen" shape with both hands, indicating a video challenge has been requested.
Net rules in volleyball are among the most frequently misunderstood aspects of the game. The current FIVB rules (updated over the years) define net violations as follows:
Net Touch: A player commits a fault if they touch the top band of the net or the top 80cm of the antenna during play while playing the ball or interfering with play. Contact with the lower net (below the top band) is not a fault as long as it does not interfere with play. This was a significant rule change — older rules penalized any net contact.
Key distinction: Incidental contact with the bottom portion of the net that does not affect the rally is not a fault. However, if a player grabs or pushes the net (even the lower portion) to gain an advantage or prevent an opponent from playing, it is a fault.
Centerline Crossing: Players may cross the centerline (the line directly under the net) as long as part of the foot (or hand) remains on or above the centerline. Completely crossing over into the opponent's court is a fault. Additionally, any body part above the knee that touches the opponent's court is a fault.
Reaching Over the Net:
Antenna Contact: The ball must cross the net between the two antennas (or their imaginary upward extensions). If the ball touches an antenna, passes outside the antenna, or crosses the net entirely beyond the antenna, it is out of play. A player touching the antenna during play also commits a fault.
The FIVB introduced the video challenge system to allow teams to contest specific referee decisions using video replay. The system is used at major FIVB events (World Championship, Volleyball Nations League, Olympic Games) and is gradually expanding to more competitions.
How many challenges per team? Each team receives 2 unsuccessful challenges per set. If a challenge is successful (the call is overturned), the team retains the challenge and does not lose it. If the challenge is unsuccessful (the original call stands), the team loses one of its challenges. Challenges reset at the start of each set.
What can be challenged?
What cannot be challenged?
Challenge procedure:
Hawk-Eye technology: At top-level FIVB events, the challenge system uses Hawk-Eye ball-tracking technology for line calls, providing millimeter-accurate replays. For non-line-call challenges, standard video replay from multiple camera angles is used.
Understanding the most frequently called faults is essential for any volleyball referee. Here are the key violations:
Double Contact: A player contacts the ball twice in succession or the ball touches two different parts of the body consecutively in a single attempt. Exception: on the first team contact (receive or dig), double contact is permitted — the ball may touch multiple body parts in a single action, as long as the contacts occur simultaneously or as part of one continuous motion. This exception was introduced to encourage longer rallies and reward defensive effort.
Lift / Carry (Held Ball): The ball is caught, held, or thrown rather than cleanly rebounded. The referee judges whether the ball visibly rested in the player's hands. This is an entirely subjective call — there is no fixed time threshold. Setting technique is most often scrutinized for lifts.
Four Hits: A team contacts the ball more than 3 times before sending it over the net. Note: a block touch does not count as one of the three team contacts — the team still has three hits available after a block.
Positional Fault (Rotation Error): At the moment of the serve, one or more players are not in their correct rotational position relative to their adjacent teammates. The scorer typically catches this by tracking the rotation order. The penalty is a point and serve to the opponent, plus any points scored while the fault was in effect are cancelled.
Back-Row Attack Fault: A back-row player (zones 1, 5, or 6) attacks the ball above the top of the net while having jumped from in front of the 3-meter line (attack line). If the back-row player jumps from behind the line, the attack is legal regardless of where they land. The key criterion is the position of the player's last foot contact before takeoff.
Foot Fault on Serve: The server touches the end line or the court floor before or at the moment of contact with the ball. After contact, the server may land inside the court.
Screening: The serving team's players position themselves in a way that deliberately prevents the receiving team from seeing the server or the trajectory of the ball. Screening is called when players stand in a formation that obstructs the receiver's view — they must give the receiving team a clear line of sight to the server.
Volleyball referee certification follows a tiered pathway, typically structured through national federations affiliated with FIVB. Here is the general progression:
Level 1 — Local / Regional Referee:
Level 2 — National Referee:
Level 3 — National A / International Candidate:
FIVB International Referee:
Age limits: FIVB international referees must typically be between 25 and 60 years old. National certifications often start as young as 14-16.
Getting started: Contact your national volleyball federation — most offer introductory referee clinics and online courses designed for beginners with no prior experience. Many federations actively recruit new referees and offer financial support for training.